Proposed Principles

Taken from my proposed list in my sketchbook brainstorms, these are the principles of Storyboard art that I have set out for myself, to compare, assess against, and to test in the coming micro-projects. Many of these have been born from my study of Disciplines and practices that surround film-making and visual narration; Cinematography and Photography especially lends itself, and Animation and Editing both have a symbiotic relationship that cannot be ignored when Storyboarding, so they have influenced this list also. They are:

Story-telling-(Borrowed from Aristotle's theories) The ability to communicate with an audience effectively, and resonate with themes, lies in the art of story-telling. A story invariably plays on known archetypes and stereotypes, and common base elements are a must to weave a narrative: A Protagonist, Antagonist, Conflict, Journey and Resolution, or as Aristotle catagorizes them: Complication and Dénouement. There is no story without these, though they do not necessarily need to be in a given order of chronology. Through storyboarding, the purpose must centre around serving the story, and the elements needed.

Communication- (Borrowed from Will Eisner's theory) The ability to communicate visually and tell a story therein is the basis for all drawing, especially when a story is crafted specifically around this method of narration. Each image must be able to do its job, which can be to evoke emotions, tell us something, or to ask and provoke questions in the recipient's mind.

Solid Drawing- (Borrowed from Animation's 12 principles) Beat boards, storyboards and animatics rely on strong solid drawing in order to communicate ideas and themes. Without clear economy of line, effectiveness of poses, gestures and body language, the performances cannot be readable, and the message may become lost in translation. Furthermore, your boards will remain incoherent and therefore fail to tell and serve the story.

Composition- (Influenced by Photography Principles) To carefully and meticulously position frame ‘clutter’, such as objects, architecture, lighting or people to be aesthetically pleasing, emotive and effective to the given moment in the story. Symmetry, or the rule of thirds lend themselves to pleasing composition. In storyboarding, this can also help with fore-shadowing an action, or build anticipation, with the interplay of what may be unfolding in the background, middle-ground and foreground.

Effective Framing-(Influenced by Cinematography Principles) To decisively frame your image and all of its components-composition and framing walk hand in hand- to further enhance the communication of the scene, and the final impact the finished product will have on the viewer. Particular thought should be given to the sequential geography of the scene, in that the framing of one moment out of context may 'work', but in the flow of a scene, it could break eye-movement, or disrupt the narrative. (I differentiate 'Effective Framing, and Composition' merely in concept as I feel there are contextual differences that can be applied, but still relate to both, depending on the medium, even though in practise they both cannot exist or happen without fulfilling the other and should be interchangeable.)

Pace and Rhythm- (Influenced by Animation Beat Boards, and Editing Principles) Understanding the flow of a sequence or story as played out in several frames is key to ensuring a smooth transition from one scenario to the next. Holding beats, building suspension, and releasing the tension with dramatic moments is crucial to engaging with, and manipulating, the viewer. Beat Boards' prime objective is to identify these 'moments' in the pace of a narrative. Editing in animatics, too, can emphasize and establish the rhythm of the sequence.

Colour and Tone-( Influenced by Comic book/Graphic Novel theories) The addition or deliberate omission of colour and tone of the images further aim to evoke an emotion or visual sensation from the viewer, aiding in the mood of the narrative. Furthermore, its potential as a story-telling tool is invaluable, as carefully placed lighting can create allusions to thematic undertones, or literally draw the viewer's attention into a particular area of the frame.

These will likely be subject to change and constant re-evaluation until I am satisfied each principle has proven its merit and need to be in the list.

The Last Laugh

The convoy sequence from director Christopher Nolan's 'The Dark Knight' remains one of the most famous parts of the film. A thrilling attack by the elusive Joker in the streets of Chicago (doubling as Gotham City) against the convoy harbouring Harvey Dent, the city's district attorney. What ensues is a hyper-realistic bombardment of the trucks, and the ultimate arrival of the Batman. Now, whilst many who saw this film widely regard this to be one of the greatest comic book movies of all time, if not one of the best thrillers in the last decade, editor Jim Emerson has a very different view.

Below in this video, he creates a detailed analysis of the convoy sequence, allegedly claiming it to have many editing faults that break or ignore basic fundamentals and principles. Whilst he may appear to be pedantic or overly critical in places, some of his points may have some merit as to the general approach and problem solving that could have been applied to the scene's more hectic aspects.

In the Cut, Part I: Shots in the Dark (Knight) from Jim Emerson on Vimeo.

Now, as I was watching this video, something occured to me: this guy was actually outlining a possible criteria to essentially redo this sequence 'correctly' according to the errors he highlights, and the principles he cites. He goes on to point out the confusion in spacial relationship between the interior of the truck and what's happening outside. Furthermore, we see that we apparently lose track of the actual participating players, to the point where one vanishes by the culmination of the sequence. Finally he also proposes some mild alternatives (with only the existing footage to chop around.) So after reviewing the video, I broke down the key points to address as these:

-Do not disrupt the geographical flow of the convoy

- Build suspension of the main villain until the proper entrance, make it ominous

-Clearly define the spacial relationship between the interior shots (Harvey Dent) and the exterior (The convoy)

-Maintain the forward direction of the action, with no deviations. Both characters and audiences must be aware of the orientation.

-Illustrate, from start to finish, the participating players and their number throughout the sequence

In addition, I also took into consideration the filming sensibilities of Christopher nolan himself, and so created a sub-critera, of sorts, to make note of:

-The sequence should remain within the bounds of hyper-realism

-All angles and frames must have the potential to be realized by practical filming on location only

-Doomed minor characters must be introduced/established prior to their demise throughout the sequence (squad cars)

Reference videos

Raging Bull reference video for Visual Reading exercise.

Heat, reference video for Lighting study.

Bayhem Tropes

Editing

Another area I want to look at in particular is the clever use of editing in film. Though this is a post-production area of tweaking, much of its effectiveness can be enhanced in potency with better planning in the pre-production area, particularly and especially in storyboarding. I want to look at how forward planning can effect editing in a positive way, in both film and animation.

As with any AOP there are certain guidelines to follow, though they remain as fluid and prone to change with opinion with each iteration. Of the examples I have found, these stand out to me:

Pudovkin's Five principles to Editing.

''01. Contrast: cutting between two different scenarios to highlight the contrast between them. As an example, Pudovkin suggests moving from scenes of poverty to someone really rich to make the difference more apparent.

.02 Parallelism: here you can connect two seemingly unrelated scenes by cutting between them and focusing on parallel features. For example if you were shooting a documentary about fish stocks in the Atlantic, you could cut from a trawler being tossed about in the ocean to a family chomping down on some fish’n'chips – in both scenes drawing our attention to the fish: the object that connects them. It creates an association in the viewers’ mind.

.03 Symbolism: Again, more intercutting, you move from your main scene to something which creates a symbolic connection for the audience. Pudovkin (living in Soviet Russia) suggested cutting between shots of striking workers being shot by Tsarist police and scenes of cows being slaughtered: in the audience’s mind, they associate the slaughter of the cattle with the slaughter of the workers.

.04 Simultaneity: This is used lots in Hollywood today: cutting between two simultaneous events as a way of driving up the suspense. If you’re making a film about a politician on election night, you might cut between shots of the vote being counted to shots of your main subject preparing to hear the result. This extending of time builds anticipation.

.05 Leit motif: This ‘reiteration of theme’ involves repeating a shot or sequence at key moments as a sort of code. Think how Spielberg uses a ‘point of view’ shot in Jaws showing the shark looking up at swimmers. The first time he does it creates a visual code for “the shark’s about to attack”. Every time we see that underwater POV we know an attack is imminent. He has allowed us to participate in the decoding.''

(source - http://adamwestbrook.wordpress.com, mentioned also in 'Shot-By-Shot' by Steven D. Katz.)

n Another set of guidelines comes from Editor Walter Murch, known as the ''Rule of Six''. They are:

Emotion

Story

Rhythm

Eye-trace

Two-dimensional plane of screen

Three-dimensional space of action.

Also from Editing and film-maker theorist Hugo Munsterburg, he offers his key 'devices':

Continuity Editing

Close Up

Flash Back

Cross Cutting

Special effects

Essentially what he is saying here is how to associate thematic elements in audience's minds via visual motifs, recurring themes, and spacial awareness in the geography of a scene. Some classic examples of edited sequences are below.

A rather humorous sequence that actually demonstrates some of the highest quality editing, for various reasons. Firstly, the intimate close ups, and the heavy use of tilted framing helps to create a sense of fluidity. There's a spontaneous air to the sequence, even if much of it was actually contrived. Certain stand-out moments are the POV or rather, Over-the-shoulder shots from the chicken's point of view. Completely unnecessary, and yet brilliant. Also the cutting from the present to the past is used to strong effect here, with much of the spacial awareness between the characters mirroring each other. You almost get a sense that what is happening to the football is a parallel of what may be happening to the chicken.

Another is a very different kind of staging, via the use of edits. This is something that could have been visualized extremely well via storyboarding, to really strike the rhythm of this tension-wound conversation. This sequence is mesmerising not only because of the quality of the performances, but because of the the clever way the bars that seperate both actors come into play.

Silence of the Lambs

At the beginning of the sequence we start from a rather distant set of cuts, establishing the location of each character. One as on outside spectator, the other as a prisoner. The bars that separate them become a clear visual element. Then, as the tension and drama of the conversation rises the nearer a revelation we move, the edit starts to change things. The camera cuts from one face to the other, gradually getting closer, until a slow pull in to Lector's face removes the bars entirely from view, creating a sense of vulnerability for the spectator. This is enforced by the much more intimate CU's of Starling showing her unease and anticipation. Neither character raises their voices, or changes much their deliverance of their lines throughout. The edit and framing alone raises the tension.

Saving Private Ryan.

The Omaha Beach sequence remains one of my favourites from director Steven Spielberg, who used heavy choreography and long lasting scenes flowing from one 'moment' to the next. The editing simply became a tool to enhance, rather than drive the story forward with deliberate stitching, with few cuts and chopped scenes as would be a viable alternative. This, more than anything, would've meant a much deeper execution in the storyboard and planning stage to ensure the pacing worked on its own terms, without proper editing.

Note how the entire action sequence flows from LEFT to RIGHT without any reverse angles, giving us a clear definition of the scene geography. It also establishes clearly where the heroes are, and where the villains are. Progress up the beach is punctuated by several key moments that swing the pacing up and down: after the initial burst upon letting the boat doors down, the under-water moments build anticipation. We are then teased with the camera bobbing up out of the water briefly as the sound explodes into being, and then quickly being silenced as it submerges again. Then the action ensues, until another pause, this time Tom Hanks' character experiencing an odd moment and the editing drops all the sound. Different frame rates on the cameras are used for a much more jittery effect to the motion as he comes to his senses. The action then continues to press from the left side of the screen to the right, following the progress of the soldiers until the sandy trench. The last shot is uncut, flowing for more than a minute, culminating in choreographed dialogue and staging that results in Hanks' character discovering the killed radio-man at the last moment. This helps us to be 'in the moment' with these characters, as if we are experiencing the siege ourselves, and stumbling along with them. The action never leaves the main character of Hanks', which further enforces this idea.

The Language of Film

First up, I've been needing to broaden my horizon in regards to what types of narrative styles and genres I can be applying my drawing skills to. So far, I have slugged around the waters of Animation, but to truly understand Storyboarding, I need to understand the Language of Film and the Genres that come with it. So first thing's first, I've nominated several areas of practices and disciplines, and hope to draw out some principles from each.

Cinematography.

Practiotioners: Jack Cardiff, Amelie, Debrunell

A defining discipline that deals with the motion of images within a film, applying many of the principles of photography, whilst conjuring new ones to cater to the added dimension of sequential imagery. Lighting, composition, and framing remain the watchwords of this discipline.

Notable cinematographers are -princess nile- who's use of colour became a hallmark of his work. Modern cinematographers such as Franco Debrunel saturate colours, in place of select hues pulled out as a visual theme throughout. The prime example is the film Amelie.

Other cinematographers have a particular flare for unusual composition, though more often than not many directors themselves can be responsible for much of the staging. Steven Spielberg in particular stages sequences with strong visual cues- I.e the silhuoette of Indiana Jones being exploited repeatedly in composition throughout the Indy trilogy, and even the recent fourth.

Westerns.

Westerns, much akin to Film Noir, can be labelled as both genre and style, with the prominence of certain film makers who have forever stamped their own flair to the formula. This genre of film making is inherently American in its origin, and is one of the most flexible and oldest narrative moulds in cinema. Ironically so, the most famous of installations over the years was by Italian director Sergio Leone who's cinematography and flair, among several other Italian directors who rose through this genre, has lead to the term 'spaghetti western'- now considered a sub-genre in its own right. It is of these films that have a direct influence over my framing style when storyboarding, and of which I will examine further here.

My personal favourites, perhaps unoriginally (so forgive me!), are 'The Man with No Name' trilogy installations; 'A Fist Full of Dollars' (1964), 'For A Few Dollars More' (1965), 'The Good, The Bad And The Ugly' (1966)

Extreme wide angles, extreme close ups, and obscure figure framing during pistol duels are all hallmarks of these films, and offer a rich depth to the visual narration and the language of film, so much so, that nearly all westerns now feature predominantly a tip of the hat to these cinematography elements.

Perfect example: Opening sequence from 'Once Upon a Time in the West'

This is personally one of my favourites, because its usage of specific composition and intimate close-ups just add to the growing tension throughout. Choice shots remain the under-the-train view as it hurtles over the camera aggressively, in marked contrast to the previous silence building up to breaking point. Trade-mark western close-ups of character faces are rife here also (being one of the films that inspired the trend under Leone's direction) and the particular emphasis on environmental sounds actually becoming the soundtrack is especially effective. This is the kind of pacing that would, at the very least today, benefit greatly in its realization from storyboarding. Below are some of my analytical thumbnails describing visually some of my favourite aspects of that sequence.

Film Noir. Now, technically speaking, Film Noir is not defined as a film genre, but rather a style within certain genres. Examples are Noir hybrids with other formulaic films such as Unforgiven, a Noirish Western, Sin City, a dark and gloomy comic book made to silver screen, and

even comedys such as Dead Men Don't Wear Plaids. Officially speaking, however, Film Noir is classed as a specific period in Cinema History, linked specifically with the post-war aura that surrounded the 40's onwards, and then being spurred on by the coming of the Cold War.

There are certain cliques that are synonymous with the Noir style, in terms of narrative. Femme Fatals, Damsels in Distress, and solitary bleak men wrapped up in a conspiracy are rife. My concern, however, is more the cinematography of this 'mood' of filming, and how I can translate that to my drawings.

Noir cinematography has its roots in German expressionism within the arts prior and during the height of the first world war. Examples of their work are:

The Student of Prague (1913)

The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920)

Nosferatu (1922)

A case in point is the critically acclaimed Nosferatu, a dark and brooding tale of the original vampire, Dracula, albeit unauthorized in book rights to be official. Despite this, it is considered a genre defining film, and is often cited in regards to the Film Noir movement.

Silent Films.

Another would be, in my own opinion, a loose Noir-ish style film: Alfred Hitchcock's The Birds. I say Noir-ish more for its thematic elements, and some of its choice shots similar to the genre, as opposed to the obvious; black and white, silhouette aspects that are so synonymous.

Hitchcock was well known for visually planning out his sequences and staging via heavy use of storyboards, as can be seen below during the famous attack scene of the birds.

And here is the final sequence.

It's interesting to see the thought process behind these boards, and how the ultimate vision is pretty much carried over intact. There are a few examples to the contrary, however. Notably an omitted wide shot from above, as seen clearly on the storyboards, showcasing the descent of the birds upon the fleeing children. Why? Perhaps it was filmed, and dropped in the editing, or obtaining that angle in real terms proved too difficult or uneconomical logistically. Furthermore it's interesting to see Hitchcock's use of back drop screens, as an almost crude per-cursor to the 'greens-screen' method so used in many films today. By doing this, he had complete control of the sequence and how it was staged; from the birds, the children's reactions, and even the background rolling by on the screen. It ensured the vision of the storyboard was transplanted crisply and with little compromise.

I personally feel the shift from the low angle, viewing the fleeing children from the school, then to the aerial POV of the Bird's ascent made for better orientation in the scene. My thumbnails explain:

It would've led nicely then to cut to the tracking shot of the children running down the road from the similar angle as the original first shot of the school. As it is, the original sequence cuts from the school view angle, to almost the same one again, this time on the move, framing the expressions on the children's faces. It's a fraction jarring, and the addition of the storyboard's original panel could have avoided that.

Pre-visualization

With the birth of storyboarding, as a term, and a regular tool, being largely attributed to Disney, it's also of note to mention what was then called the 'Leica reel' as being pioneered by them too . Essentially, a Leica reel is a crude pre-cursor to the animatics we see so often today in the pre-production pipeline. An example below of Disney's 'Fantasia' can be viewed.

To kick things off I thought I'd showcase one of the entertaining instalments of Pixar animation studio's series of films The Incredibles, directed by Pixar veteran Brad Bird.

All praise aside to the storytelling and special effects from the bigwigs behind Pixar, there is something in particular that I wanted to focus upon- the modern Animatic.

An animatic, for those who remain in the dark, is essentially a mock up video of the storyboard edited together with sound to crudely show the pacing of a particular sequence in any given film- no different in concept, then, than the original Leica reel, which is especially useful and perhaps essential in animation productions. It also highlights in advance any potential flaws in the visual storytelling that can quickly be altered before any principal photography or production itself kicks in!

A peak at one of the animatic sequences prepped for the character 'Dash's sprint against ze bad guys:

http://www.pixar.com/featurefilms/incredibles/behind_pop5.html

It seems like a simple case of scanning in the original drawings from the 'beat' boards/storyboards and then using Photoshop to polish and adjust, then into Adobe After Effects, or some In-house variation of that programme, to move the images around for fluidity and animation, and of course- if you spotted them- the computer generated models of the flying blade thingamajigs- no doubt in Maya or, again, another In-house variant. I should stress that the level of quality in that animatic is insane, and by no means would other film reels look nearly as polished. We are talking about Pixar here, after all.

For me this animatic absolutely demonstrates the importance of pre-visualizing a sequence, so as to raise any flags before you commit to production. It also show-cases the principles of animation beautifully, and successfully tells the story with deep immersion, despite the crudeness of its finish. This is a milestone for animatics. Where it was once considered merely a visualizing tool, it has now almost become as beautiful as an art-form in itself.

But winding back to another important leap in pre-visualization takes us to the early 2000's. There are two examples that I particularly wish to highlight. Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings Trilogy, and George Lucas' Prequel Star wars trilogy (with particular emphasis on the second instalment, Episode 2 Attack of the Clones).

Storyboards were used heavily, and most obviously, for all of the action sequences that were in particular CG-heavy. Peter Jackson's sprawling battle sequences had to be realized with a much tighter method than simple storyboarding, or even turning those thumbnails into a workable animatic. The very same issues arose when staging the final blow-out of the clone war at the end of Geoge Lucas' Episode 2. The answer? Computer generated animatics. Or as they called it, the 'Pre-vis' sequence.

With the Lord of the Rings trilogy, that came about in the same time frame as the Star Wars prequel trilogy, they too had tasked themselves with an overwhelming feat in regards to CGI accomplishments. To realize that vast and sprawling world of Middle Earth, Peter Jackson and co had to tread new ground in regards to both the pre-production and post-production process, even merging the symbiotic relationship between the two so that jobs of the one became responsible for the other, and vice versa. This was apparent with the same approach as George Lucas with the use of CGI rendered animatics. The documentary video below covers much of the design approach Weta Digital took to the first film, The Fellowship of the Ring, and how they problem solved. The second is another, this time from the third and final film, Return of the King, which illustrates how far they had come and how their pre-visualization technique enabled them to execute a crucial climactic sequence, they wouldn't otherwise have been able to do.